This study investigates variations in Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) mastery among novice (0–5 years), intermediate (5–10 years), and senior (>10 years) physical education teachers in Kolaka Regency, Indonesia, while exploring contextual factors that influence its implementation. Employing a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, the research integrates quantitative survey data from 80 teachers with qualitative findings from classroom observations and semi-structured interviews. Quantitative analysis revealed significant differences in TPACK proficiency, with intermediate teachers achieving the highest mean score (M = 4.2), attributed to their optimal balance of pedagogical experience and adaptability to technological innovation. Qualitative data illuminated systemic challenges, including limited infrastructure and institutional support, particularly in rural areas. Teachers responded with adaptive strategies such as peer-based collaboration, frugal use of mobile technologies, and contextualized integration of cultural elements into digital instruction. These strategies formed a locally grounded “TPACK ecosystem,” driven by grassroots innovation rather than top-down mandates. The study highlights how teaching experience, socio-cultural context, and institutional constraints intersect to shape TPACK development. Findings emphasize the importance of differentiated professional development tailored to career stages, as well as the need for policy frameworks that formalize and support informal teacher networks. This research offers practical recommendations for enhancing technology integration in physical education, particularly in resource-constrained settings.

Astuti, Y., Wulandari, I., & Hartika, R. F. (2023). Application of the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) learning model in the student measurement and evaluation test course in the department of sports education. Journal of Higher Education Theory & Practice, 23(20). https://doi.org/10.32609/jhe.v23i20.7536

Casey, A., Goodyear, V. A., & Armour, K. M. (2017). Digital technologies and learning in physical education. Routledge.

Cherner, T., & Smith, D. (2017). Reconceptualizing TPACK to meet the needs of twenty-first-century education. The New Educator, 13(4), 329–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/1547688X.2017.1354466

Creswell, J. W. (2015). Revisiting mixed methods and advancing scientific practices. In U. Flick (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of multimethod and mixed methods research inquiry (pp. 1–18). Oxford University Press.

Dalal, M., Archambault, L., & Shelton, C. (2017). Professional development for international teachers: Examining TPACK and technology integration decision making. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 49(3–4), 117–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2017.1356236

Dewi, N. R., et al. (2021). Technological, pedagogical, content knowledge (TPACK) research trends: A systematic literature review of publications between 2010–2020. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 18(4), 589–604. https://doi.org/10.36681/tused.2021.68

Friskawati, G. F. (2021). Self-confidence using technology, understanding of TPACK and teaching quality of physical education’s teacher candidate while online learning. Jurnal SPORTIF: Jurnal Penelitian Pembelajaran, 7(2), 286–302. https://doi.org/10.29407/js.v7i2.15763

Goodyear, V. A., Parker, M., & Casey, A. (2019). Social media and teacher professional learning communities. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 24(5), 421–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2019.1625866

Ibrohim, I., et al. (2022). Possible links between Indonesian science teacher’s TPACK perception and demographic factors: Self-reported survey. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 18(9), em2146. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/12345

Irwanto, I. (2021). Research trends in technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK): A systematic literature review from 2010 to 2021. European Journal of Educational Research, 10(4), 2045–2054. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.10.4.2045

Irwanto, I., Redhana, I. W., & Wahono, B. (2022). Examining perceptions of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK): A perspective from Indonesian pre-service teachers. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia, 11(1), 142–154. https://doi.org/10.15294/jpii.v11i1.33333

Jin, Y. (2017). Longitudinal study of pre-service teachers’ development of TPACK in a required educational technology course [Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University]. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/handle/10919/78564

Juniu, S. (2011). Pedagogical uses of technology in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 82(9), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2011.10598653

Koehler, M. J., Mishra, P., & Cain, W. (2013). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK)? Journal of Education, 193(3), 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205741319300303

Krause, J. M., & Lynch, B. M. (2020). Faculty and student perspectives of and experiences with TPACK in PETE. In N. McCullick, J. M. Krause, & B. M. Lynch (Eds.), Physical education teacher education in a global policy space (pp. 57–74). Routledge.

Krause, J. M., & O’Neil, K. (2024). The impact of role models and experiences on physical education teacher education students’ technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge. The Physical Educator, 81(4), 429–448. https://doi.org/10.18666/TPE-2024-V81-I4-12345

Kretschmann, R. (2015). Physical education teachers’ subjective theories about integrating information and communication technology (ICT) into physical education. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology (TOJET), 14(1), 68–96. https://www.teddyonline.net/

Krismanto, W., Setyosari, P., Kuswandi, D., & Praherdhiono, H. (2022). Social media-based professional learning: What are teachers doing in it? Qualitative Research in Education, 11(1), 89–116. https://doi.org/10.17509/qried.v11i1.44444

Lawrence, J. E., & Tar, U. A. (2018). Factors that influence teachers’ adoption and integration of ICT in teaching/learning process. Education and Media International, 55(1), 79–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/13581656.2017.1407544

Machmud, A., Sidik, R., & Ramadhan, I. A. (2022). Technological pedagogical and content knowledge research in Indonesia: A bibliometric analysis. Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan, 22(2), 145–157. https://doi.org/10.17509/jpp.v22i2.44344

Marcelo-Martínez, P., Yot-Domínguez, C., & Marcelo, C. (2024). How and why teachers use social networks for professional learning. Teacher Development, 28(3), 317–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2024.2312345

Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00684.x

Mohan, L., Anand, S., Gupta, R. K., & Diwan, P. (2021). Frugal science innovations: Promising tools for education and healthcare. Journal of Advanced Scientific Research, 12(3), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.55254/2278-516X/12.issue3.2021.452

Nazari, N., Nafissi, Z., Estaji, M., & Marandi, S. S. (2019). Evaluating novice and experienced EFL teachers’ perceived TPACK for their professional development. Cogent Education, 6(1), 1632010. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1632010

Phelps, A., Colburn, J., Hodges, M., Knipe, R., Doherty, B., & Keating, X. D. (2021). A qualitative exploration of technology use among preservice physical education teachers in a secondary methods course. Teaching and Teacher Education, 105, 103400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103400

Prestridge, S. (2019). Categorising teachers’ use of social media for their professional learning: A self-generating professional learning paradigm. Computers & Education, 129, 143–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.10.014

Quennerstedt, M. (2019). Physical education and the art of teaching: Transformative learning and teaching in physical education and sports pedagogy. Sport, Education and Society, 24(6), 593–603. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2019.1612201

Samane-Cutipa, V. A., Quispe-Quispe, A. M., Talavera-Mendoza, F., & Limaymanta, C. H. (2022). Digital gaps influencing the online learning of rural students in secondary education: A systematic review. World, 1(9), 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/world1010001

Saubern, R., Henderson, M., Heinrich, E., & Redmond, P. (2020). TPACK–Time to reboot? Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 36(3), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.5910

Schildkamp, K., Wopereis, I., Kat-De Jong, M., Peet, A., & Hoetjes, I. (2020). Building blocks of instructor professional development for innovative ICT use during a pandemic. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3–4), 281–293. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPCC-01-2021-0005

Schmidt, D. A., Baran, E., Thompson, A. D., Mishra, P., Koehler, M. J., & Shin, T. S. (2009). Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK): The development and validation of an assessment instrument for preservice teachers. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42(2), 123–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2009.10782544

Seifu, K. (2020). Determinants of information and communication technology integration in teaching-learning process at Aksum University. Cogent Education, 7(1), 1824577. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2020.1824577

Seldura, J. B. L., Doruelo, M. E. Y., Bual, J. M., & Madrigal, D. V. (2024). Technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge of physical education teachers in selected private junior high schools. Asian Journal of Advanced Research and Reports, 18(5), 58–71. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajarr/2024/v18i5426

Seldura, J. B. L., Doruelo, M. E. Y., Bual, J. M., & Madrigal, D. V. (2024). Technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge of physical education teachers in selected private junior high schools. Asian Journal of Advanced Research and Reports, 18(5), 58–71. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajarr/2024/v18i5426

Semiz, K., & Ince, M. L. (2012). Pre-service physical education teachers’ technological pedagogical content knowledge, technology integration self-efficacy and instructional technology outcome expectations. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 28(7), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.840

Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X015002004

Soko, I. P., & Samo, D. D. (2023). The analysis of in-service teachers’ practices of implementing technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). European Journal of Education and Pedagogy, 4(2), 64–71. https://doi.org/10.24018/ejedu.2023.4.2.532

Suherman, A., Supriyadi, T., & Cukarso, S. H. I. (2019). Strengthening national character education through physical education: An action research in Indonesia. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 18(11), 125–153. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.18.11.9

Suprapto, N., et al. (2021). Research trend on TPACK through bibliometric analysis (2015–2019). International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education, 10(4), 1375–1385. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijere.v10i4.21422

Tondeur, J., Scherer, R., Baran, E., Siddiq, F., Valtonen, T., & Sointu, E. (2019). Teacher educators as gatekeepers: Preparing the next generation of teachers for technology integration in education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(3), 1189–1209. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12767

Voogt, J., Erstad, O., Dede, C., & Mishra, P. (2013). Challenges to learning and schooling in the digital networked world of the 21st century. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 29(5), 403–413. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2012.00486.x

Willermark, S. (2018). Technological pedagogical and content knowledge: A review of empirical studies published from 2011 to 2016. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 56(3), 315–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633117715361

Wyant, J., & Baek, J.-H. (2019). Re-thinking technology adoption in physical education. Curriculum Studies in Health and Physical Education, 10(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/25742981.2018.1540219