Email this article 
Evaluating Agricultural Sustainability in Permaculture Farms: A Multidimensional Approach for Resilient Farming Systems
Abstract
Morocco’s agriculture is increasingly constrained by climate change, water scarcity, and soil degradation, limiting the effectiveness of conventional farming. Permaculture offers a promising alternative, yet its sustainability in the Moroccan context remains underexplored. This study evaluates the multidimensional sustainability of permaculture farms and identifies key constraints to their resilience, assessing 20 farms in the commune of Brachoua using the IDEA (Indicators of Sustainability of Agricultural Farms) framework, adapted to local conditions through expert and farmer consultation. Scores were calculated across agroecological, socio-territorial, and economic dimensions. Farm typologies were identified using principal component analysis (PCA), with adequacy confirmed by eigenvalues, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO), and Bartlett’s test, and hierarchical ascending classification (HAC), validated by dendrogram structure and silhouette index. Results show strong agroecological performance (65.1±8.51 points), moderate economic sustainability (61.0±13.53), and weak socio-territorial integration (41.1±12.19). PCA revealed two main axes explaining 85.4% of variance, while HAC distinguished two farm clusters: a small group of high-performing farms with stronger socio-territorial and economic linkages, and a majority cluster with average but uniform profiles. Weaknesses include limited livestock diversity, poor soil and water management, lack of product traceability, and weak community participation. The study concludes that while permaculture supports ecological sustainability and financial independence, socio-territorial deficiencies remain the main barrier. Targeted interventions (farmer training, cooperative development, and quality certification) are needed to improve outcomes. More broadly, the study shows the usefulness of combining IDEA with multivariate statistics to generate farm typologies, offering a transferable framework for assessing sustainability in smallholder systems facing climatic and resource challenges.
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
Abdelhafidh, H., Mahdhi, N., & Hamed, M. (2020). Sustainability of irrigated farms in south-eastern Tunisia: Case of the private irrigated perimeter of Bsissi-Oued El Akarit, Gabes. Journal of New Sciences, Agriculture and Biotechnology, 77(4), 4510–4522. Retrieved from https://www.jnsciences.org/agri-biotech/110-volume-77/641-sustainability-of-irrigated-farms-in-south-eastern-tunisia-case-of-the-private-irrigated-perimeter-of-bsissi-oued-el-akarit,-gabes.html
Ahmad, M. A. (2024). Component analysis approach. Opportunities and Risks in AI for Business Development: Volume 2, 546, 401. Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-65203-5
Alaka, A. C., & Ogunlade, C. A. (2024). Enhancing food safety and quality through sustainable food production and consumption practices in the global south. Food Safety and Quality in the Global South (pp. 67–93). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-2428-4_3
Altieri, M. A., Nicholls, C. I., Henao, A., & Lana, M. A. (2015). Agroecology and the design of climate change-resilient farming systems. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 35(3), 869–890. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13593-015-0285-2
Anuhya, P. (2022). Permaculture: A natural rehabilitation for nature. A Monthly Peer Reviewed Magazine for Agriculture and Allied Sciences, 1(10), 45. Retrieved from https://theagricultureonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/August-2022-issue.pdf#page=57
Aribi, F., Fetoui, M., Sghaier, M., Jaouad, M., & Sghaier, M. (2022). Typological analysis of farming systems diversity and performance: A case study of Southern Tunisia. Journal of Oasis Agriculture and Sustainable Development, 4(2), 31–40. https://doi.org/10.56027/JOASD.spiss052022
Astier, M., García-Barrios, L., Galván-Miyoshi, Y., González-Esquivel, C. E., & Masera, O. R. (2012). Assessing the sustainability of small farmer natural resource management systems. A critical analysis of the MESMIS program (1995-2010). Ecology and Society, 17(3), 25. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-04910-170325
Attia, K., Darej, C., M’hamdi, N., Zahm, F., & Moujahed, N. (2021). Sustainability assessment of small dairy farms from the main cattle farming systems in the North of Tunisia. New Medit, 20(3), 191–205. https://doi.org/10.30682/nm2103m
Attia, K., Darej, C., M’hamdi, N., Zahm, F., & Moujahed, N. (2022). Assessment of the sustainability of small dairy farms in the North of Tunisia. Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment, 26(3), 166–177. https://doi.org/10.25518/1780-4507.19826
Babac, S., & Belić, D. (2018). Permaculture zone planning using the triangular method. Advances in Civil and Architectural Engineering, 9(17), 101–110. Retrieved from https://ojs.srce.hr/index.php/acae/article/view/20012
Barbier, J. M., & Lopez-Ridaura, S. (2010). Evaluation de la durabilité des systèmes de production agricoles: limites des démarches normatives et voies d'amélioration. ISDA Innovation and Sustainable Development in Agriculture and Food conference, 2010 (pp. 9-p, hal-00510528f). Montpellier: France. Retrieved from https://hal.science/hal-00510528/
Bhati, A., & Makanur, B. (2019). Permaculture: A way of sustainable living. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 8(3), 3028–3030. Retrieved from https://www.phytojournal.com/archives/2019/vol8issue3/PartAQ/8-2-552-956.pdf
Bir, A., Benidir, M., & Ikhlef, S. (2019). Sustainability analysis of dairy cattle farms and their susceptibility to climatic hazards in the semi-arid area of Setif (Algeria). Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 25(1), 3–9. Retrieved from https://www.agrojournal.org/25/01-01.pdf
Centemeri, L. (2020). S’engager pour l’environnement par le design des milieux au quotidien: Le mouvement de la permaculture et les défis d'une transition vers une société écologique. La Lettre de l'InSHS, 25, hal-03034588f. Retrieved from https://hal.science/hal-03034588v1/document
Cooksey, R. W. (2020). Descriptive statistics for summarising data. Illustrating statistical procedures: Finding meaning in quantitative data (pp. 61–139). Singapore: Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2537-7_5
Cruz, J. F., Mena, Y., & Rodríguez-Estévez, V. (2018). Methodologies for assessing sustainability in farming systems. Sustainability Assessment and Reporting (pp. 33–58). IntechOpen, London. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79220
Dale, V. H., Kline, K. L., Kaffka, S. R., & Langeveld, J. (2013). A landscape perspective on sustainability of agricultural systems. Landscape Ecology, 28(6), 1111–1123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-012-9814-4
Didarali, Z., & Gambiza, J. (2019). Permaculture: Challenges and benefits in improving rural livelihoods in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Sustainability, 11(8), 2219. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082219
Du, Z., Feng, H., & Arbuckle, J. G. (2024). Beyond cross-sectional, one-time adoption measures of conservation practices: Understanding temporal adoption patterns using farm-level panel data. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.344010
Dumont, A. M., Vanloqueren, G., Stassart, P. M., & Baret, P. V. (2016). Clarifying the socioeconomic dimensions of agroecology: Between principles and practices. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 40(1), 24–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2015.1089967
El Ansari, L., Yigezu, Y. A., Gary, C., & Belhouchette, H. (2016). Establishing farm typologies in dryland areas: The case of Saïs, Morocco. Montpellier, France: Centre International de Hautes Etudes Agronomiques Méditerranéennes, Institut Agronomique Méditerranéen de Montpellier (CIHEAM-IAMM). Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11766/3481
Fatima, T., Mehmood, A., & Naz, I. (2023). Morphological responses of marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) to different potting media. Journal of Horticultural Science & Technology, 6(3), 31–35. https://doi.org/10.46653/jhst23063031
Gaviglio, A., Bertocchi, M., & Demartini, E. (2017). A tool for the sustainability assessment of farms: Selection, adaptation and use of indicators for an Italian case study. Resources, 6(4), 60. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources6040060
Geeraert, D. (2023). Le processus de changement du porteur de projet en entrepreneuriat, entre identité et compétences. Le cas particulier du permaculteur (Doctoral dissertation). France: HESAM Université. Retrieved from https://theses.hal.science/tel-04368469/
Gerville-Réache, L., & Couallier, V. (2011). Échantillon représentatif (d'une population finie): Définition statistique et propriétés. Retrieved from https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00655566/document
Gewers, F. L., Ferreira, G. R., Arruda, H. F. D., Silva, F. N., Comin, C. H., Amancio, D. R., & Costa, L. d. F. (2021). Principal component analysis: A natural approach to data exploration. ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR), 54(4), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1145/3447755
Gissler, A. (2023). Ecological principles of permaculture (Bachelor thesis). České Budějovice, Ceko: University of South Bohemia. Retrieved from https://theses.cz/id/9vam6t/BP_AG_2023_final.pdf
Gliessman, S. (2018). Defining agroecology. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 42(6), 599–600. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2018.1432329
Gómez-Limón, J. A., & Sanchez-Fernandez, G. (2010). Empirical evaluation of agricultural sustainability using composite indicators. Ecological Economics, 69(5), 1062–1075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.11.027
Gustafson, D. J., & Ingle, M. D. (1999). Defining sustainable development: Environmental and investment perspectives and implications for administrative reform. International Journal of Public Administration, 22(6), 833–854. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900699908525407
Hakimi, F. (2021). Development potentials and sustainability challenges of peri-urban farming in the metropolis of Rabat (Morocco). Journal of Analytical Sciences and Applied Biotechnology, 3(2), 78–83. https://doi.org/10.48402/IMIST.PRSM/jasab-v3i2.28249
Hakimi, F. (2022). Characterization of the diversity of peri-urban farms in the metropolis of Casablanca in Morocco to facilitate their agroecological transition to more sustainable food systems. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology, 7, 1. https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeab.71.18
Hakimi, F., & Brech, M. (2021). Opportunities and challenges of peri-urban agriculture on the fringes of the metropolis of Rabat, Morocco. International Journal of Food Science and Agriculture, 5(2), 269–274. https://doi.org/10.26855/ijfsa.2021.06.009
Hakimi, F., & Hamdoun, F. Z. (2023). A multi-criteria sustainability assessment of mediterranean rainfed farming systems using the IDEA method: A Moroccan case study. Caraka Tani: Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 38(2), 339–358. http://dx.doi.org/10.20961/carakatani.v38i2.75853
Hakimi, F., Sebbar, A., Bouamri, R., Sidikou, A. A. H., El Janati, M., & Bouaziz, A. (2024). Effects of compost and compost tea on soil properties and nutrient uptake of the Moroccan date palm cultivar “Mejhoul” under organic cultivation. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 25(7), 224–240. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/188334
Hakimi, F., Sehli, S., Hashem, A., Avila-Quezada, G. D., & Abd_Allah, E. F. (2025). Comparative analysis of organic and conventional farm sustainability in peri-urban zones of Rabat, Morocco: Insights and perspectives. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 11(1), 2463562. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2025.2463562
Jerner, J., & Bitic, A. (2019). Benefits and challenges of practicing permaculture:–The perspectives of both immigrants and indigenous people (Bachelor Thesis). Jönköping, Sweden: Jönköping University. Retrieved from https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1329572/FULLTEXT01.pdf
Johnson, R. A., & Bhattacharyya, G. K. (2019). Statistics: Principles and methods. United States of America: John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.id/books?hl=id&lr=&id=0k6MDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Statistics:+principles+and+methods&ots=5A2DFHgvzp&sig=jv2KZaV1uPiRxplWIzTl4rU9MRU&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Statistics%3A%20principles%20and%20methods&f=false
Kachali, R., & Chimonyo, V. (2024). Capacity development roadmap for strengthening stakeholder skills, knowledge, and resilience of mixed farming systems in Malawi. Lilongwe, Malawi: CGIAR research initiative on Mixed Farming Systems (MFS). International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/10568/163311
Knickel, K., Almeida, A., Galli, F., Hausegger-Nestelberger, K., Goodwin-Hawkins, B., Hrabar, M., ... & Wiskerke, J. S. (2021). Transitioning towards a sustainable well-being economy—Implications for rural–urban relations. Land, 10(5), 512. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10050512
Krebs, J., & Bach, S. (2018). Permaculture—Scientific evidence of principles for the agroecological design of farming systems. Sustainability, 10(9), 3218. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093218
Kruger, E. M. (2017). Cultivating natures: Movements in South African permaculture (Doctoral dissertation). Johannesburg, South Africa: University of the Witwatersrand. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/188770106.pdf
LaFevor, M. C. (2022). Characterizing agricultural diversity with policy-relevant farm typologies in Mexico. Agriculture, 12(9), 1315. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12091315
Lamine, C. (2015). Sustainability and resilience in agrifood systems: Reconnecting agriculture, food and the environment. Sociologia Ruralis, 55(1), 41–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/soru.12061
Liebregts, A. (2023). How to be a permie? Analyzing influential factors shaping permaculture strategies for overcoming challenges in Southern Australia (Master’s thesis). Utrecht, Netherlands: Utrecht University. Retrieved from https://studenttheses.uu.nl/handle/20.500.12932/45549
Marot, S. (2019). La permaculture: Un pari pascalien. Tracés (12–13). Retrieved from https://hal.science/hal-03506937/file/T19_12-13_PROD_LOW_marot.pdf
Michel-Villarreal, R. (2023). Towards sustainable and resilient short food supply chains: A focus on sustainability practices and resilience capabilities using case study. British Food Journal, 125(5), 1914–1935. https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-09-2021-1060
Mishra, D., & Singh, A. P. (2023). Organic food certification: Overcoming barriers and enhancing sustainability in the agricultural industry. Jamshedpur Research Review, 60(4), 78–87. Retrieved from https://jamshedpurresearchreview.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Jamshedpur-Research-Review-Year-11-Volume-4-Issue-60-July-August-2023.pdf#page=79
Mollison, B. (1988). Permaculture: A designer’s manual. New South Wales, Australia: Tagari Publications. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=6932804302190073618&hl=en&as_sdt=2005&sciodt=0,5
Mollison, B., & Holmgren, D. (2021). Permaculture. Ch. Corlet. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/bill-mollison-permaculture-1-1/page/n1/mode/2up?utm=
Morel, C. (2022). Permaculturer par hier et pour demain, le cas de la coopérative des Al Fallah Modernes (Had el Brachoua, Maroc) Master dissertation. Toulouse, Prancis: L’ISTHIA de l’Université Toulouse]. Retrieved from https://www.isthia.fr/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/MOREL_CLAIRE_M1_GVCS.pdf
Morenés, J. M.-R., Bartonlini, F., Maye, D., Von Münchaussen, S., Noe, E., Pinto-Correia, M., … & Vergamini, D. (2018). The role of territorial conditions in influencing the sustainability of farming systems and strategies across Europe: A comparative analysis. European International Farming Systems Association: Farming Systems: Facing Uncertainties and Enhancing Opportunities, 1566767844-1321452598. Retrieved from https://dspace.uevora.pt/rdpc/bitstream/10174/23558/1/Theme%205_Mu%C3%B1oz-Rojas_revised.pdf
Murphy, B., Martini, M., Fedi, A., Loera, B. L., Elliott, C. T., & Dean, M. (2022). Consumer trust in organic food and organic certifications in four European countries. Food Control, 133, 108484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108484
Naim, R. M., Mutalib, M. A., Shamsuddin, A. S., Lani, M. N., Ariffin, I. A., & Tang, S. G. H. (2024). Navigating the environmental, economic and social impacts of sustainable agriculture and food systems: A review. Frontiers of Agricultural Science and Engineering, 11(4), 652–673. https://doi.org/10.15302/J-FASE-2024550
Najjar, A., Nahdi, O., Mighri, A., Nasr, J., Hamrouni, A., & Ben Mustapha, E. (2021). Adaptation of the IDEA’s indicators method for the evaluation of the Tarentaise cattle breed sustainability. Journal of New Sciences, 15(1), 323–332. Retrieved from https://www.jnsciences.org/sustainable-livestock-management/117-volume-15/671-adaptation-of-the-idea%E2%80%99s-indicators-method-for-the-evaluation-of-the-tarentaise-cattle-breed-sustainability.html
Nanni, A., Venturi, M., & Paiter, L. (2021). Permaculture MESMIS-a methodology to evaluate ecological well-being on permaculture farms. International Research Journal of Biological Sciences, 10(3), 47–57. Retrieved from https://www.isca.me/IJBS/Archive/v10/i3/9.ISCA-IRJBS-2021-002.pdf
Ngo, T., Nguyen, H. D., Ho, H., Nguyen, V. K., Dao, T. T., & Nguyen, H. T. (2021). Assessing the important factors of sustainable agriculture development: An Indicateurs de Durabilité des Exploitations Agricoles‐Analytic Hierarchy Process study in the northern region of Vietnam. Sustainable Development, 29(2), 327–338. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2148
Nkansah, B. K. (2018). On the Kaiser-Meier-Olkin’s measure of sampling adequacy. Mathematical Theory and Modeling, 8(7), 52–76. Retrieved from https://iiste.org/Journals/index.php/MTM/article/view/44386
Pépin, A., Morel, K., & van der Werf, H. M. (2021). Conventionalised vs. agroecological practices on organic vegetable farms: Investigating the influence of farm structure in a bifurcation perspective. Agricultural Systems, 190, 103129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2021.103129
Powlson, D. S., Gregory, P. J., Whalley, W. R., Quinton, J. N., Hopkins, D. W., Whitmore, A. P., … & Goulding, K. W. (2011). Soil management in relation to sustainable agriculture and ecosystem services. Food Policy, 36, S72–S87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2010.11.025
Pretty, J., & Bharucha, Z. P. (2014). Sustainable intensification in agricultural systems. Annals of Botany, 114(8), 1571–1596. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcu205
Salleh, A. M., Rosli, F. M., Esa, N., & Ibrahim, M. H. (2018). Permaculture design: Linking local knowledge in land use planning for house compound. SHS Web of Conferences, 45, 03003. https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20184503003
Saris, W. E., & Gallhofer, I. N. (2014). Design, evaluation, and analysis of questionnaires for survey research. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.co.id/scholar?cites=2664125941448488760&as_sdt=2005&sciodt=0,5&hl=id
Shrestha, N. (2021). Factor analysis as a tool for survey analysis. American Journal of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, 9(1), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.12691/ajams-9-1-2
Skrzypczyński, R., Dołzbłasz, S., Janc, K., & Raczyk, A. (2021). Beyond supporting access to land in socio-technical transitions. How polish grassroots initiatives help farmers and new entrants in transitioning to sustainable models of agriculture. Land, 10(2), 214. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10020214
Smith, P., Bustamante, M., Ahammad, H., Clark, H., Dong, H., Elsiddig, E. A., ... & Bolwig, S. (2014). Agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU). Climate change 2014: Mitigation of climate change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (pp. 811–922). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/103008543/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter11.pdf
Sotamenou, J., & Soh Fogwa Pogha, C. A. (2018). Évaluation de la durabilité de l'agropole d'ananas de nlohe (Cameroun) par la méthode idea. Food Systems/Systèmes Alimentaires, 3, 219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.01.020
Šūmane, S., Kunda, I., Knickel, K., Strauss, A., Tisenkopfs, T., des Ios Rios, I., … & Ashkenazy, A. (2018). Local and farmers’ knowledge matters! How integrating informal and formal knowledge enhances sustainable and resilient agriculture. Journal of Rural Studies, 59, 232–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.01.020
Van Zanten, B. T., Verburg, P. H., Espinosa, M., Gomez-y-Paloma, S., Galimberti, G., Kantelhardt, J., … & Piorr, A. (2014). European agricultural landscapes, common agricultural policy and ecosystem services: A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 34, 309–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-013-0183-4
Vázquez-González, I., García-Suárez, E., Ruiz-Escudero, F., & García-Arias, A. I. (2024). A combined multivariate statistical analysis to establish dairy farm typologies in Cantabria. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 221, 109007. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2024.109007
Verma, V., & Tiwari, P. (2020). Permaculture: An approach to sustainability in urban and rural context. Research Journal of Recent Sciences, 9(2), 39–43. Retrieved from https://www.isca.me/rjrs/archive/v9/i2/7.ISCA-RJRS-2019-030.pdf
Vigne, M., Avadí, A., Corson, M. S., Vayssières, J., & Wassenaar, T. (2017). Assessing the capacity of cropping systems to respond to challenges of sustainable territorial development. Living Territories to Transform the World, pp. 199–210. Retrieved from https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/23963/1/1006172.pdf#page=201
Vitari, C., & David, C. (2017). Sustainable management models: Innovating through permaculture. Journal of Management Development, 36(1), 14–36. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-10-2014-0121
Wezel, A., Bellon, S., Doré, T., Francis, C., Vallod, D., & David, C. (2009). Agroecology as a science, a movement and a practice. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 29(4), 503–515. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro/2009004
Yadav, S. P. S., Lahutiya, V., Ghimire, N. P., Yadav, B., & Paudel, P. (2023). Exploring innovation for sustainable agriculture: A systematic case study of permaculture in Nepal. Heliyon, 9(5), e15899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15899
Zahm, F., & Girard, S. (2023). La méthode IDEA4 Indicateurs de durabilité des exploitations agricoles: Principes et guide d’utilisation. Évaluer la durabilité des exploitations agricoles, p.339, éditions Quae. https://doi.org/10.35690/979-1-0275-0545-6
Zahm, F., Ugaglia, A. A., Barbier, J. M., Boureau, H., Del'homme, B., Gafsi, M., ... & Redlingshöfer, B. (2019). Assessing the sustainability of farms. The IDEAv4 method, a conceptual framework based on the dimensions and properties of sustainability. Cahiers Agricultures, 28, 5. https://doi.org/10.1051/cagri/2019004
Zhang, Q. F. (2024). From sustainable agriculture to sustainable agrifood systems: A comparative review of alternative models. Sustainability, 16(22), 9675. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16229675
Zurek, M., Ingram, J., Sanderson Bellamy, A., Goold, C., Lyon, C., Alexander, P., ... & Withers, P. J. (2022). Food system resilience: Concepts, issues, and challenges. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 47(1), 511–534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-015-0285-2
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
