Enhancing Nutritional and Functional Properties of Plant-Based Meatballs: A Study on Kepok Banana Flower, Brown Lentils, and Wheat Gluten
Abstract
Interest in meat substitutes has grown in recent years as consumers seek healthier options. However, many products still face limitations, either in texture or in nutritional balance. Kepok banana flower (KBF), with its fibrous structure, has the potential to mimic meat texture, though its protein content is relatively low. Brown lentils can enhance protein content, while high-protein binders such as isolated soy protein (ISP) and wheat gluten (WG) improve texture and structural integrity. This study aimed to determine the optimum ratio of minced KBF (MKBF) to brown lentil paste (BLP) and to evaluate binder formulations for nutrient-rich plant-based meatballs. The research was conducted in two stages. First, eight MKBF:BLP ratios (100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40, 50:50, 40:60, 30:70) were tested for protein content, cooking yield, and lightness (L*), identifying 40:60 as optimal. Second, the 40:60 blend was incorporated into five binder formulations: F0 (commercial reference), F1 (0% WG + 10% ISP), F2 (15% WG + 3% ISP), F3 (20% WG + 3% ISP), and F4 (25% WG + 3% ISP). Analyses included water-holding capacity (WHC), total dietary fiber (TDF), texture profile analysis, and sensory evaluation. The 40:60 ratio yielded 10.24±0.08% protein, 105.68±2.81% cooking yield, and 47.20±0.15 L*. The F4 showed the highest WHC (52.94±9.14%) and TDF (5.99±0.06%), with a hardness of 516.51±31.62 g, chewiness of 353.28±21.66 Nmm, and springiness of 0.87±0.02 mm. Sensory analysis showed that F4 was most comparable to F0. These results suggest that a 40:60 MKBF and BLP combined with WG and ISP produces consumer-acceptable plant-based meatballs with high protein and dietary fiber.
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
Alsalman, F. B., Tulbek, M., Nickerson, M., & Ramaswamy, H. S. (2020). Evaluation of factors affecting aquafaba rheological and thermal properties. LWT, 132, 109831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109831
Amalia, L., Yuliana, N. D., Sugita, P., Arofah, D., Syafitri, U. D., Windarsih, A., … & Kusnandar, F. (2022). Volatile compounds, texture, and color characterization of meatballs made from beef, rat, wild boar, and their mixtures. Heliyon, 8(10), e10882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10882
Bakhsh, A., Lee, S. J., Lee, E. Y., Hwang, Y. H., & Joo, S. T. (2021). Traditional plant-based meat alternatives, current, and future perspective: A Review. Journal of Agriculture & Life Science, 55(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.14397/jals.2021.55.1.1
Ball, J. J., Wyatt, R. P., Lambert, B. D., Smith, H. R., Reyes, T. M., & Sawyer, J. T. (2021). Influence of plant-based proteins on the fresh and cooked characteristics of ground beef patties. Foods, 10(9), 1971. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10091971
Bryant, C. J. (2022). Plant-based animal product alternatives are healthier and more environmentally sustainable than animal products. Future Foods, 6, 100174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2022.100174
Carlin, J., Wang, N., Asavajaru, P., Polley, B., Kompany‐Zareh, M., Bhowmik, P., … & Samaranayaka, A. (2025). Proximate composition, in vitro protein digestibility, and micronutrient density of commercial pea, faba bean, and lentil protein isolates and concentrates. Sustainable Food Proteins, 3(2), e70006. https://doi.org/10.1002/sfp2.70006
Chaiwongsa, K., Charoenvitayavorakul, N., Pakasap, C., & Khuenpet, K. (2021). Effect of banana blossom substitution on quality characteristic of plant-based shiitake mushroom balls. Asia-Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 26(3), APST–26. https://doi.org/10.14456/apst.2021.52
Chelladurai, V., & Erkinbaev, C. (2020). Lentils. Pulses: Processing and product development (Fifth edit, pp. 129–143). Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41376-7
Ciobanu, M.-M., Manoliu, D.-R., Ciobotaru, M. C., Flocea, E.-I., & Boișteanu, P.-C. (2025). Dietary fibres in processed meat: A review on nutritional enhancement, technological effects, sensory implications and consumer perception. Foods, 14(9), 1459. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14091459
Day, L., Cakebread, J. A., & Loveday, S. M. (2022). Food proteins from animals and plants: Differences in the nutritional and functional properties. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 119, 428–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.12.020
Devi, V. C., Devanampriyan, R., Kayethri, D., Sankari, R., Premalatha, J., Sathish Raam, R., & Mothil, S. (2025). Optimization and process validation of freeze‐structured meat substitute using machine learning models. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 48(3), e70071. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.70071
Dewan, Md. F., Shams, S. ‐N. ‐Us, & Haque, M. A. (2024). Impact of processing on the bioactive compounds and antinutritional factors of lentil (Lens culinaris L.)—A review. Legume Science, 6(3), e253. https://doi.org/10.1002/leg3.253
Farida, F., & Rawiniwati, W. (2021). Agribusiness prospect of banana flowers and oyster mushrooms as raw materials of meatballs vegetarian. Journal of Tropical Biodiversity, 1(3), 149–166. https://doi.org/10.59689/bio.v1i3.64
Fitriani, A., Toni, D. R., & Rahmadhia, S. N. (2024). Chemical characteristics of Kepok banana bud (Musa Paradisiaca Linn.) flakes with variations of mocaf flour. Journal of Functional Food and Nutraceutical, 5(2), 97–105. https://doi.org/10.33555/jffn.v5i2.114
Gallego, M., Arnal, M., Barat, J. M., & Talens, P. (2020). Effect of cooking on protein digestion and antioxidant activity of different legume pastes. Foods, 10(1), 47. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10010047
Gasparre, N., & Rosell, C. M. (2023). Wheat gluten: A functional protein still challenging to replace in gluten‐free cereal‐based foods. Cereal Chemistry, 100(2), 243–255. https://doi.org/10.1002/cche.10624
Guiné, R. P. F., Correia, P. M. R., Reis, C., & Florença, S. G. (2020). Evaluation of texture in jelly gums incorporating berries and aromatic plants. Open Agriculture, 5(1), 450–461. https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2020-0043
Haritha, V., & Bukya, A. (2025). Preparation and quality characterization of herbal nutritional powder. International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology, 13(7), 241–249. https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2025.72969
Herz, E., Herz, L., Dreher, J., Gibis, M., Ray, J., Pibarot, P., … & Weiss, J. (2021). Influencing factors on the ability to assemble a complex meat analogue using a soy-protein-binder. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 73, 102806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2021.102806
Islam, M., Huang, Y., Jain, P., Fan, B., Tong, L., & Wang, F. (2023). Enzymatic hydrolysis of soy protein to high moisture textured meat analogue with emphasis on antioxidant effects: As a tool to improve techno-functional property. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 50, 102700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2023.102700
Juhrich, L. C., Grosse, M., Mörlein, J., Bergmann, P., Zorn, H., & Gand, M. (2025). Nutritional and sensory properties of meat analogues: A current overview and future considerations. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 73(4), 2236–2248. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.4c09414
Kahraman, E., Dağlioğlu, O., & Yilmaz, İ. (2023). Physicochemical and sensory characteristics of traditional kırklareli meatballs with added cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) flour. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition, 5(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-022-00120-1
Kakati, N., & Gogoi, B. (2025). A study of multiple comparison tests with imprecise and uncertain information. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 18(26), 2067–2074. https://doi.org/10.17485/IJST/v18i26.1547
Kartikaningsih, H., Yahya, Y., Yuniar, T., Jaziri, A. A., Zzaman, W., Kobun, R., & Huda, N. (2021). The nutritional value, bacterial count and sensory attributes of little tuna (Euthynnus affinis) floss incorporated with the banana blossom. Potravinarstvo Slovak Journal of Food Sciences, 15, 846–857. https://doi.org/10.5219/1657
Khezerlou, A., Yekta, R., Abedi-Firoozjah, R., Alizadeh-Sani, M., & McClements, D. J. (2025). Advances in sensory and nutritional innovation for sustainable plant-based meat analogs: A comprehensive review. Food Reviews International, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2025.2520448
Kodithuwakku, H. T., & Abeysundara, P. De. A. (2025). Exploring the nutritional benefits of a ready-to-eat vegan sandwich filler developed with tender jackfruit, seaweed, banana blossom and soy flour: Formulation and quality analysis. Food Chemistry Advances, 8, 101039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.focha.2025.101039
Kyriakopoulou, K., Keppler, J. K., & van der Goot, A. J. (2021). Functionality of ingredients and additives in plant-based meat analogues. Foods, 10(3), 600. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10030600
Li, M., Xia, M., Imran, A., de Souza, T. S. P., Barrow, C., Dunshea, F., & Suleria, H. A. R. (2024). Nutritional value, phytochemical potential, and biological activities in lentils (Lens culinaris Medik.): A review. Food Reviews International, 40(7), 2024–2054. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2023.2245073
Liu, X., Blumenthal, D., & Guénard-Lampron, V. (2025). From printability to palatability: A sensory and hedonic study of 3d-printed cereal- and legume-based products. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 104, 104078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2025.104078
López-Moreno, M., & Kraselnik, A. (2025). The impact of plant-based proteins on muscle mass and strength performance: A comprehensive review. Current Nutrition Reports, 14(1), 37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-025-00628-1
Ma, K. K., Grossmann, L., Nolden, A. A., McClements, D. J., & Kinchla, A. J. (2022). Functional and physical properties of commercial pulse proteins compared to soy derived protein. Future Foods, 6, 100155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2022.100155
Maningat, C. C., Jeradechachai, T., & Buttshaw, M. R. (2022). Textured wheat and pea proteins for meat alternative applications. Cereal Chemistry, 99(1), 37–66. https://doi.org/10.1002/cche.10503
Mazumder, Md., Sujintonniti, N., Chaum, P., Ketnawa, S., & Rawdkuen, S. (2023). Developments of plant-based emulsion-type sausage by using grey oyster mushrooms and chickpeas. Foods, 12(8), 1564. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12081564
Morales-Herrejón, Y. G., Márquez-Benavides, L., Herrera-Camacho, J., Cortés-Penagos, C. de J., & Yahuaca-Juárez, B. (2025). Lentil flour as an alternative source of protein. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Agrícolas, 16(3), e3696. https://doi.org/10.29312/remexca.v16i3.3696
Owusu-Apenten, R., & Vieira, E. (2022). Food labels. Elementary food science (Fifth edit, pp. 81–112). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65433-7
Pandey, A., Pearlman, M., Bonnes, S. L., & Nour, S. I. (2025). Can we maintain muscle mass on a plant-based diet? Current Nutrition Reports, 14(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-024-00594-0
Prakash, S., Gaiani, C., & Bhandari, B. R. (2023). Plant-based food as a sustainable source of food for the future. Engineering Plant-Based Food Systems (First edit, pp. 1–12). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-89842-3.00005-1
Prasandi, V. P. N., & Joye, I. J. (2020). Dietary fibre from whole grains and their benefits on metabolic health. Nutrients, 12(10), 3045. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12103045
Qi, X., & Tester, R. F. (2025). Dietary fibre for health and gastrointestinal therapeutic applications: A review. Food Science and Engineering, 6(2), 246–260. https://doi.org/10.37256/fse.6220256243
Rahman, M. S., Al-Attabi, Z. H., Al-Habsi, N., & Al-Khusaibi, M. (2021). Measurement of instrumental texture profile analysis (TPA) of foods. Techniques to Measure Food Safety and Quality (First edit, pp. 427–465). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68636-9_17
Richirose, R., & Soedirga, L. C. (2023). Utilization of cassava-jicama composite flour in making gluten-free biscuits with different types of fats. Caraka Tani: Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 38(2), 244–259. https://doi.org/10.20961/carakatani.v38i2.71993
Schmid, E. M., Farahnaky, A., Adhikari, B., & Torley, P. J. (2022). High moisture extrusion cooking of meat analogs: A review of mechanisms of protein texturization. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 21(6), 4573–4609. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.13030
Sonmezler, D., Sumnu, G., & Sahin, S. (2025). Utilizing lentil proteins and flours for sustainable encapsulation and techno‐functional applications in food technology. Legume Science, 7(3), e70040. https://doi.org/10.1002/leg3.70040
Thagunnaa, B., Kandelb, K., & Lamichhanec, B. (2023). Banana blossom: Nutritional value, health benefits and its utilization. Reviews in Food and Agriculture, 4(2), 66–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.26480/rfna.02.2023.66.70
Tiven, N. C., & Simanjorang, T. M. (2025). Chemical characteristic of beef meatball substituted by tuna (Thunnus sp.) meat. AIP Conference Proceedings, 3206, 030008. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0259786
Vishwakarma, S., Kulshrestha, R., & Tiwari, S. (2024). Cooking methods and their implications in the preservation of food nutrients and health benefits. Traditional foods: The reinvented superfoods (First edit, pp. 245–263). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-72757-3_12
Wahab, N. B. A., Ismail, S. N., & Abidin, M. H. S. Z. (2020). Physicochemical and sensory characteristics of banana blossom nuggets. International Journal of Research and Innovation Management, 6(1), 56–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16759.64161
Warner, R. D. (2023). The eating quality of meat: IV—water holding capacity and juiciness. Lawrie’s meat science (First edit, pp. 457–508). Elsevier. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100694-8.00014-5
Widati, A. S., Rosyidi, D., Radiati, L. E., & Nursyam, H. (2021). The effect of seaweed (Eucheuma cottonii) flour addition on physicochemical and sensory characteristics of an Indonesian-style beef meatball. International Journal of Food Studies, 10(3), 112–120. https://doi.org/10.7455/ijfs/10.si.2021.a9
Xavier, J. R., Shashikumar, S. H., Vats, D., & Chauhan, O. P. (2025). Future trends in plant-based meat: Consumer perception, market growth and health benefits. Future Foods, 11, 100551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2025.100551
Yie, L. J., Khalid, N. I., & Ismail-Fitry, M. R. (2023). Quality evaluation of buffalo meatballs produced at different comminution process temperatures. Malaysian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, 19(4), 573–582. https://doi.org/10.11113/mjfas.v19n4.2946
Younis, K., Ashfaq, A., Ahmad, A., Anjum, Z., & Yousuf, O. (2023). A critical review focusing the effect of ingredients on the textural properties of plant‐based meat products. Journal of Texture Studies, 54(3), 365–382. https://doi.org/10.1111/jtxs.12704
Yuan, X., Jiang, W., Zhang, D., Liu, H., & Sun, B. (2021). Textural, sensory and volatile compounds analyses in formulations of sausages analogue elaborated with edible mushrooms and soy protein isolate as meat substitute. Foods, 11(1), 52. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11010052
Zhang, L., Wang, Z., Gao, H., Zeng, J., Song, M., & Xu, J. (2025). Effect of wheat gluten on the quality of corn steamed bread prepared by modified corn flour and its frozen storage stability. Food Measure, 19, 5886–5897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-025-03361-z
Zhang, T., Dou, W., Zhang, X., Zhao, Y., Zhang, Y., Jiang, L., & Sui, X. (2021). The development history and recent updates on soy protein-based meat alternatives. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 109, 702–710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.01.060
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.